Alcohol in the Islamic world

Alcohol in the pre-Islamic period

According to Leon Schwartz, contrary to popular belief, alcohol culture was common in the Arabian Peninsula during the pre-Islamic period, known as the Jahiliyyah. He points to the Nabataeans, trading tribes who also operated in the Negev region, as people who engaged in viticulture and wine production. Archaeological findings in the Negev reveal the remains of wineries, and some wineries today are trying to reconstruct Nabataean agriculture and wines.

Schwartz explains that the wine of that era was different from modern wine. Fermentation processes were unstable, so they used to flavor the wine with various plants and spices to improve its taste. The main sources of sugar for fermentation were grapes and dates, which were common in the region. Key evidence for this drinking culture is found in Jahili poetry. The poets, who were a kind of “Wikipedia and Netflix of the period,” documented social life, and their poetry includes many poems praising wine and drinking gatherings. He gives the example of the poetry of Imru’ al-Qais, a sixth-century poet, which describes nights of drinking wine in the company of friends.

The prohibition in the Quran: a gradual process

The prohibition on drinking alcohol in Islam was not established in a single, absolute verse. Instead, it developed gradually in three stages, as they appear in the Quran.

1. The first stage (Surah Al-Baqarah): The verse states that in wine and gambling there is “great sin and also some benefit for people,” but the sin is greater than the benefit. This is a warning, not an absolute ban.
2. The second stage (Surah An-Nisa): The verse forbids believers from approaching prayer while intoxicated, “until you know what you are saying.” According to Schwartz, this verse was revealed after an incident in which an intoxicated prayer leader made a mistake in its wording.
3. The third stage (Surah Al-Ma’idah): Here, the severe and final prohibition appears. The verse defines wine and games of chance as an “abomination of Satan’s handiwork” and calls on believers to avoid them.

Muslim commentators explain this gradualness by saying that the Prophet Muhammad could not have suddenly forbidden an entire society, where drinking was deeply rooted, from ceasing its custom. Therefore, the ban was imposed step by step. Schwartz adds that the interpretive principle of “naskh,” whereby a later verse abrogates an earlier one, explains how the final prohibition is the binding one. However, he notes that there are other verses in the Quran, such as in Surah Muhammad, that promise believers “rivers of wine, a joy to those who drink” in paradise.

The tightening of the ban in the Hadith

Islamic law, which is based on the Hadith (traditions about the Prophet Muhammad), makes the prohibition even stricter. Schwartz provides examples from authenticated hadiths. One hadith curses not only the drinker but everyone involved in the supply chain: the one who pours, the one who produces, the one who sells, the one who buys, the one who transports, and the one who profits from it. Another hadith calls wine “the mother of all evil,” and another hadith states that the prayer of a person who has drunk wine will not be accepted for forty days.

The situation today: between prohibition and legality

Schwartz refutes the assumption that alcohol is forbidden throughout the Muslim world. He divides Muslim countries, defined as countries with a Muslim majority of 50% or more, into three groups:

1. Total prohibition: Alcohol is completely forbidden in only five countries: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Libya, Afghanistan, and Somalia. However, he notes that in Saudi Arabia, the law is expected to change to allow sales to diplomats.
2. Prohibition for Muslims only: In countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Sudan, and Malaysia, alcohol is forbidden for Muslims but permitted for foreigners and non-Muslims. About 670 million Muslims live in these countries.
3. Legal for all: In many countries, including Turkey, Lebanon, Morocco, Jordan, Egypt, and Albania, alcohol is legal for the entire population. About 730 million Muslims live in these countries.

In addition, he notes that certain streams of Islam, like the Alawites in Syria and the Alevis in Turkey, consume alcohol. Per capita consumption data shows that in some Muslim countries, such as Burkina Faso, Chad, and Albania, alcohol consumption is higher than in Israel.

Alcohol production in Muslim countries

Besides consumption, there is also a thriving alcohol production industry in the Muslim world. Schwartz talks about breweries, including craft breweries, operating in the Palestinian territories (Taybeh, Shepherds), Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey (producer of Efes Pilsen). Pakistan has a whiskey industry, a legacy of British rule, and North African countries, especially Algeria, have a developed wine industry with French influence. Algeria was even once one of the world’s largest wine exporters. In Israel, one can find Palestinian products, and sometimes also Lebanese and Jordanian arak.